Thermodynamics
Effects of work, heat and energy on systems
1st Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics simply states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed (conservation of energy). Thus power generation processes and energy sources actually involve conversion of energy from one form to another, rather than creation of energy from nothing
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy and disorder
Absorbed Solar Radiation
Solar radiation absorbed by various materials
Acetone - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of acetone at temperatures ranging from -95 to 275 °C (-138 to 530 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Acetone - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of acetone, also called 2-propanone, dimethyl ketone and pyroacetic acid. Phase diagram included.
Alternative Fuels Properties
Properties of alternative fuels like Biodiesel, E85, CNG and more
Aluminum - Radiation Heat Emissivity
Radiation heat emissivity of unoxidized, oxidized and polished aluminum
Ammonia - Density at Varying Temperature and Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of ammonia at temperatures ranging -50 to 425 °C (-50 to 800 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ammonia - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic (absolute) and kinematic viscosity of gasous and liquid ammonia at temperatures ranging from -73 to 425°C (-100 to 800°F) at pressure ranging from 1 to 1000 bara (14.5 - 14500 psia) - SI and Imperial Units
Ammonia - Prandtl Number
Figures and table showing changes in Prandtl number for ammonia with changes in temperature and pressure
Ammonia - Properties at Gas-Liquid Equilibrium Conditions
Figures and tables showing how the properties of liquid and gaseous ammonia changes along the boiling/condensation curve (temperature and pressure between triple point and critical point conditions). An ammonia phase diagram are included.
Ammonia - Specific Heat at varying Temperature and Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables showing specific heat, CP and CV, of gasous and liquid ammonia at temperatures ranging from -73 to 425°C (-100 to 800°F) at pressure ranging from 1 to 100 bara (14.5 - 1450 psia) - SI and Imperial Units
Ammonia - Thermal Conductivity at Varying Temperature and Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables showing thermal conductivity of liquid and gaseous ammonia at temperatures ranging -70 to 425 °C (-100 to 800 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ammonia - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, Physical and Thermal Properties of Ammonia. Phase diagram included.
Ammonia - Vapour Pressure at gas-liquid equilibrium
Figures and table showing ammonia saturation pressure at boiling point, SI and Imperial units
Argon - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of argon, Ar, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Arithmetic and Logarithmic Mean Temperature Differences in Heat Exchangers
Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference - AMTD - and Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference - LMTD - formulas with examples - Online Mean Temperature Calculator
Benzene - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and table showing density and specific weight of benzene, C6H6, at temperatures ranging from 5 to 325 °C (42 to 620 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Benzene - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and table showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of benzene, C6H6, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Benzene - Thermophysical properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of benzene, also called benzol. Phase diagram included.
Bimetallic Strips
Heat and bending of bimetallic strips
Butane - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculators, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of liquid and gaseous butane, C4H10, at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Butane - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculators, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of liquid and gaseous butane, C4H10, at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Butane - Specific Heat
Online calculators, figures and tables showing specific heat, Cp and Cv, of gasous and liquid butane, C4H10, at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Butane - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculators, figures and tables showing thermal conductivity of liquid and gaseous butane, C4H10, at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Carbon dioxide - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of carbon dioxide, CO2, at temperatures ranging from -50 to 775 °C (-50 to 1400 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Carbon Dioxide - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and table showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of carbon dioxide, CO2, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Carbon dioxide - Prandtl Number
Figures and table showing changes in Prandtl number for carbon dioxide with changes in temperature and pressure
Carbon dioxide - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and table showing thermal conductivity of carbon dioxide, CO2, at temperatures ranging from -50 to 775 °C (-50 to 1400 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Carbon Dioxide - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of carbon dioxide. Phase diagram included.
Carbon Monoxide - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of carbon monoxide, CO, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Carnot Efficiency
The efficiency of the Carnot cycle
Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion
Linear temperature expansion coefficients for aluminum, copper, glass, iron and other common materials
Conductive Heat Transfer
Heat transfer takes place as conduction in a solid if there is a temperature gradient
Convective Heat Transfer
Heat transfer between a solid and a moving fluid is called convection. This is a short tutorial about convective heat transfer
Cooling Mode - Heat Flux
Heat fluxes for various cooling or heat transfer modes
Critical Points for some Substances
Critical points of some common substances like air, argon, helium and more
Critical Temperatures and Pressures for some Common Substances
Critical temperatures and pressures for some common substances - air, alcohol, ether, oxygen and more
Density of Liquids vs. Pressure and Temperature Change
Density and specific volume of a liquid versus change in pressure and temperature
Diffusion Coefficients of Gases in Water
Diffusion flux [kg/m2s] tells how fast a substanse solved in another substance flows due to concentration gradients. Diffusion constants [m2/s] are given for several gases in water
Dowtherm A
Physical properties of Dowtherm A
Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio between the useful energy output and the energy input
Emissivity Coefficient Materials
The radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient of some common materials as aluminum, brass, glass and many more
Emissivity Coefficients common Materials
Radiation emissivities of some common materials like water, ice, snow, grass and more
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work
Energy Accumulated in Heated Water - kWh
Thermal energy stored in heated water
Energy Conversion Factors
Convert between energy units
Energy Storage Density
Energy density - by weight and volume - for some ways to store energy
Energy Transfer Equation
Fluid energy transfer
Ethane - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of ethane, C2H6, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethane - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and table showing thermal conductivity of ethane, C2H6, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethanol - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of ethanol, C2H5OH, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethanol - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of ethanol at temperatures ranging from -25 to 325 °C (-10 to 620 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethanol - Specific Heat, Cp and Cv
Online calculators, figures and tables showing specific heat , Cp and Cv, of gasous and liquid ethanol at temperatures ranging from -25 to 325 °C (-10 to 620 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethanol - Thermophysical properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of ethanol (also called alcohol or ethyl alcohol). Phase diagram included.
Ethylene - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of ethylene, C2H4, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethylene - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of ethylene, C2H4, also called ethene or acetene, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethylene - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and table showing thermal conductivity of ethylene, also called ethene or acetene, C2H4, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Ethylene - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of ethylene, also called ethene, acetene and olefiant gas. Phase diagram included.
Fluid Heat Transfer Coefficients - Heat Exchanger Surface Combinations
Average overall heat transmission coefficients for some common fluids and surface combinations as Water to Air, Water to Water, Air to Air, Steam to Water and more
Fouling and Reduced Heat Transfer in Heat Exchangers
The heat-transfer in a heat exchanger is reduced by fouling
Freezing Mixtures and Cooling Agents
Freezing mixtures, cooling agents and freezing points
Heat Capacity
The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to change its temperature by one degree, and has units of energy per degree
Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer Coefficients
Overall heat transfer coefficients in heat exchanger constructions - tubular, plate or spiral
Heat of combustion
Tabulated values of heat of combustion (= energy content) of common substances, together with examples showing how to calculate the heat of combustion
Heat Up Applications - Energy Required and Heat Transfer Rates
Energy required to heat up a substance
Heat Value
The gross (high) and net (low) heating values
Heat, Work and Energy
Heat, work and energy tutorial - essentials as specific heat
Heavy Water Thermophysical Properties
Thermodynamic properties of heavy water (D2O) - density, melting temperature, boiling temperature, latent heat of fusion, latent heat of evaporation, critical temperature and more
Helium - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of helium, He, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Hydrogen - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of hydrogen, H2, at temperatures ranging from -260 to 325 °C (-435 to 620 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Hydrogen - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and table showing thermal conductivity of hydrogen, H2, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Hydrogen sulfide - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of hydrogen sulfide, H2S, also called hydrosulfuric acid, sewer gas and stink damp. Phase diagram included.
Ice / Water - Melting Points at Higher Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables showing melting points of ice to water at pressures ranging from 0 to 29000 psia (0 to 2000 bara). Temperature given as °C, °F, K and °R.
Latent Heat of Melting for some common Materials
Latent heat of fusion when changing between solid or liquid state for common materials like aluminum, ammonia, glycerin, water and more
Linear Thermal Expansion
Linear temperature expansion - online calculator
Liquid Ammonia - Thermal Properties at Saturation Pressure
Density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, viscosity and Prandtls no. of liquid ammonia at its saturation pressure
Liquids - Freezing and Melting Points
Common fluids and their freezing and melting points
Methane - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of methane, CH4, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Methane - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of methane, CH4, at temperatures ranging from -160 to 725 °C (-260 to 1300 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Methane - Prandtl number
Figures and table showing changes in Prandtl number for methane with changes in temperature and pressure
Methane - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and table showing thermal conductivity of methane, CH4, at temperatures ranging from -160 to 725 °C (-260 to 1300 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Methane - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, Physical and Thermal Properties of Methane - CH4. Phase diagram included.
Methanol - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of methanol,CH3OH, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Methanol - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of liquid methanol,CH3OH, at varying temperature - Imperial and SI Units
Methanol - Specific Heat
Online calculator, figures and tables showing isobaric and isochoric specific heat of methanol, CH3OH, at varying temperature - Imperial and SI Units
Methanol - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of methanol, CH3OH (also called carbinol, wood alcohol, hydroxy methyl and methyl alcohol). Phase diagram included.
Microwave Heating
Heating with microwaves
Mixing Liquids and/or Solids - Final Temperatures
Calculate the final temperature when liquids or solids are mixed
Mollier Chart for Water - Imperial Units
Mollier chart for water in English Units
Mollier Chart for Water - Metric Units
Mollier chart for water in Metric Units
Mollier Diagram for Water-Steam
Enthalpy-entropy diagram for water and steam
Nitrogen - Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Entropy
Enthalpy, internal energy and entropy of Nitrogen as ideal gas
Nitrogen - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of nitrogen, N2, at temperatures ranging from -175 to 1325 °C (-280 to 2400 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Nitrogen - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of nitrogen, N2, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Nitrogen - Prandtl number
Figures and tables showing Prandtl number of nitrogen at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Nitrogen - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing thermal conductivity of nitrogen, N2, at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Nitrogen - Thermal Diffusivity
Figures and tables showing thermal diffusivity of nitrogen at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Nitrogen - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, Physical and Thermal Properties of Nitrogen - N2
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Calculate overall heat transfer coefficients for walls or heat exchangers
Oxygen - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of oxygen, O2, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Oxygen - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of oxygen, O2, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Pentane - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and table showing density and specific weight of pentane, C5H12, at temperatures ranging from -130 to 325 °C (-200 to 620 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Pentane - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of pentane, also called n-pentane. Phase diagram included.
Power Plant Performance Efficiency
Power plant heat rate, thermal efficiency, capacity factor, load factor, economic efficiency, operational efficiency, energy efficiency
Propane - Density and Specific Weight
Online calculator, figures and tables showing density and specific weight of propane, C3H8, at temperatures ranging from -187 to 725 °C (-305 to 1300 °F) at atmospheric and higher pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Propane - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Online calculators, figures and tables showing dynamic and kinematic viscosity of liquid and gaseous propane at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Propane - Prandtl Number
Figures and tables showing Prandtl Number of liquid and gaseous propane at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Propane - Specific Heat
Online calculators, figures and tables showing specific heat, Cp and Cv, of gasous and liquid propane, C3H8, at varying temperature and pressure - Imperial and SI Units
Propane - Thermal Conductivity
Online calculator, figures and tables showing thermal conductivity of liquid and gaseous propane at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Propane - Thermal Diffusivity
Figures and tables showing thermal diffusivity of liquid and gaseous propane at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Property vs. State
Concept of properties and state
Radiation Constants Building Materials
The radiation constant is the product between the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity constant for a material
Radiation Heat Transfer
Heat transfer due to emission of electromagnetic waves is known as thermal radiation
Rankine Efficiency
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle
Salt Hydrates - Melting points and Latent Energy
Melting points and latent energy of salt hydrates
Solids - Volume Temperature Expansion Coefficients
Cubical expansion coefficients for solids
Specific Heat - Online Unit Converter
Online specific heat converter with the most commonly used units
Specific Heat and Individual Gas Constants of Gases
Specific heat at constant volume, specific heat at constant pressure, specific heat ratio and individual gas constant - R - common gases as argon, air, ether, nitrogen and many more ..
Specific Heat of Food and Foodstuff
Specific heat of common food and foodstuff like apples, bass, beef, pork and many more
Specific Heat of Solids
Common solids - like brick, cement, glass and many more - and their specific heats - in Imperial and SI units
Specific Heat of some common Substances
Specific heat of some products like wet mud, granite, sandy clay, quartz sand and more
Specific Heat of some Liquids and Fluids
Specific heat for some common liquids and fluids - acetone, oil, paraffin, water and many more
Specific Heat of some Metals
Specific heat of commonly used metals like aluminum, iron, mercury and many more - imperial and SI units
Standard enthalpy of formation, Gibbs energy of formation, entropy and molar heat capacity of organic substances
The standard enthalpy of formation, Gibbs energy of formation, entropy and molar heat capacity are tabulated for more than hundred organic substances.
Standard state and enthalpy of formation, Gibbs free energy of formation, entropy and heat capacity
Definition and explanation of the terms standard state and standard enthalpy of formation, with listing of values for standard enthalpy and Gibbs free energy of formation, as well as standard entropy and molar heat capacity, of 370 inorganic compounds
Standardized Enthalpies and Entropies
Standardized enthalpies and entropies for some common substances
Storing Thermal Heat in Materials
Energy stored as sensible heat in materials
Surface - Radiation Absorptivity
Radiation surface absorptivity
Symbols Used to Denote a Chemical Reactions and Process or Condition
Explanation of symbols used as subscripts or superscripts to tell more about the type of chemical reaction, process or condition
Temperature
Introduction to temperature - including Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Rankine definitions - an online temperature converter
Temperature Expansion Coefficients common Piping Materials
Expansion coefficients for common materials used in pipes and tubes - aluminum, carbon steel, cast iron, PVC, HDPE and more
Thermal Conductivity - Online Converter Calculator
Convert thermal conductivities
Thermal Conductivity - selected Materials and Gases
Thermal conductivity of some selected gases, insulation products, aluminum, asphalt, brass, copper, steel and other common materials
Thermal Conductivity - Unity Converter
Convert between thermal conductivity units
Thermal Conductivity Heat Exchanger Materials
Typical heat exchanger materials and their thermal conductivities
Thermal Conductivity Liquids
Some fluids and their thermal conductivities
Thermal Expansion - Superficial i.e. Area
Superficial i.e area temperature expansion - online calculator
Thermal Resistivity and Conductivity
Thermal resistivity and conductivity
Thermal Transmittance and Thermal Resistance
Thermal transmittance U and thermal resistance R
Thermodynamic Terms, Functions and Relations
Common thermodynamic terms and functions - potential energy, kinetic energy, thermal or internal energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy and more
Thermodynamics Key Values Internationally Agreed
Internationally agreed, internally consistent, values for the thermodynamic properties (standard enthalpy of formation, entropy and [H°(298)-H°(0)]) of key chemical substances
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of a substance is zero if the absolute temperature is zero
Toluene - Density and Specific Weight
Linear temperature expansion coefficients for aluminum, copper, glass, iron and other common materials
Toluene - Thermophysical Properties
Chemical, physical and thermal properties of toluene, also called methylbenzene, toluol and phenylmethane. Phase diagram included.
Units of Heat - BTU, Calorie and Joule
The most common units of heat are BTU - British Thermal Unit, Calorie and Joule
Volumetric - or Cubic - Thermal Expansion
Volumetric temperature expansion with online calculator
Volumetric Expansion Coefficients Liquids
Volumetric - or cubical - expansion coefficients for some common liquids
WABT - Weighted Average Bed Temperature
Definition and examples of calculation of weighted average bed temperature in adiabatic reactors
Water - Boiling Points at Vacuum Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables giving the boiling temperatures of water in varying vacuum, SI and Imperial units.
Water - Enthalpy (H) and Entropy (S)
Figures and tables showing the enthalpy and entropy of liquid water as function of temperature - SI and Imperial Units
Water - Heat of Vaporization
Online calculator, figures and tables showing heat of vaporization of water, at temperatures from 0 - 370 °C (32 - 700 °F) - SI and Imperial units
Water - Ionization Constant, pKw, of normal and heavy water
Ionization constant (= dissociation constant = self-ionization constant = ion product = autoprotolysis constant ) of water and heavy water, given as function of temperature (°C and °F) in figures and tables
Water - Prandtl Number
Figures and tables showing Prandtl Number of liquid and gaseous water at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Water - Properties at Gas-Liquid Equilibrium Conditions
Figures and tables showing how the properties of water changes along the boiling/condensation curve (vapor pressure, density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, specific heat, Prandtl number, thermal diffusivity, entropy and enthalpy).
Water - Specific Gravity
Figures and tables showing specific gravity of liquid water in the range of 32 to 700 °F or 0 to 370°C, using water density at four different temperatures as reference
Water - Specific Heat
Online calculator, figures and tables showing specific heat of liquid water at constant volume or constant pressure at temperatures from 0 to 360 °C (32-700 °F) - SI and Imperial units
Water - Thermal Conductivity
Figures and tables showing thermal conductivity of water (liquid and gas phase) with varying temperature and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Water - Thermal Diffusivity
Figures and tables showing thermal diffusivity of liquid and gaseous water at varying temperarure and pressure, SI and Imperial units
Water Boiling Points at Higher Pressure
Online calculator, figures and tables showing boiling points of water at pressures ranging from 14.7 to 3200 psia (1 to 220 bara). Temperature given as °C, °F, K and °R.
Water vs. Steam - Critical and Triple Points
Critical point is where vapor and liquid are indistinguishable and triple point is where ice, water and vapor coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium
Work done by Force
Work done by a force acting on an object
Zeroth Law of Temperature
Temperature and heat flow